Introduction

Early Modern Europe: From the Black Death to Colonial Rivalries

We’ve extensively focused on the Spanish colonization of the Caribbean and the Americas and its impact on the region’s indigenous peoples due to their expansion. The next few posts will dive into the emergence of colonial rivals to the Spaniards back on the European continent and how these powers began establishing footholds in the archipelago I call home.

With that said, we must first understand the state of Europe at the time. These years surrounding the Golden Age of Exploration marked the beginning of a period known as Early Modern Europe. A myriad of critical historical events had set the stage between established kingdoms and emerging nation-states to grapple with one another in a complex chess game that would forever shape history. 

With that analogy out of the way, I believe it’s helpful to wrap our heads around the rules of the game by getting a grasp of:

1. The “Board”: a brief timeline and synopsis of significant events that impacted the entire European landscape as a whole (a great deal of which we’ve talked about, e.g. Fall of Constantinople and The Age of Discovery)
2. The “Pieces”: a more detailed look into the European powers that we’ll focus on during this blog’s next phase. These include:

• The Spanish
• The British
• The French
• The Dutch, and
• The Portuguese

Let’s understand some of the significant events that shaped several outcomes and the landscape of early modern Europe. This is by no means an exhaustive list of occurrences. In truth, I’ve struggled significantly to limit it to a few pertinent points that I’ll raise in the future. Fortunately, our coverage will begin with the world’s deadliest pandemic (I’m not referring to COVID-19).

The Black Death: Societal Collapse, Religious Reckoning, and Europe’s Renaissance

The Black Death in 14th-century Europe wasn’t merely a pandemic but a profound force of transformation. With millions succumbing to its wrath, the subsequent societal, religious, and political shifts would forever alter the European landscape.

Origins and Spread

Central to the catastrophe of the Black Death was the bacterium Yersinia pestis. This tiny microbe initiated a sequence of horrors that would redefine entire civilizations. Yersinia pestis leveraged two unsuspecting allies: black rats and the fleas feasting on them. Infected fleas fed on contaminated rats became vectors, transmitting the bacterium when they subsequently bit humans. Given rats’ ubiquity in medieval European cities and ships, these flea-carried infections rapidly expanded their reach. Beyond flea bites, the pneumonic form, one of the disease’s deadliest manifestations, propagated through respiratory droplets, enabling person-to-person spread, particularly in crowded urban zones.

The disease is believed to have originated in Central Asia, making its way to Crimea. A significant transmission event occurred during the Siege of Kaffa. As chronicled in John Kelly’s “The Great Mortality,” the Mongols, afflicted by the plague, flung their deceased into the Genoese-held city, possibly introducing the contagion. Fleeing Genoese might have unknowingly carried this silent killer to Mediterranean ports. As traders traversed the famed Silk Road, the disease spread like wildfire.

Symptoms and Medical Understanding

The bubonic form, characterized by swollen lymph nodes or “buboes,” was commonly encountered. Accompanying symptoms included fever and fatigue. The pneumonic variant, meanwhile, wreaked havoc on the respiratory system, progressing rapidly and, in most cases, proving fatal.

The 14th-century medical fraternity, though earnest, grappled in the dark. Absent knowledge of microbes, treatments oscillated between age-old traditions, superstition, and prevalent medical beliefs:

• Bloodletting: An attempt to recalibrate the body’s “four humors” by draining “superfluous” blood.
• Poultices: Herbal concoctions applied to sores, hoped to extract the malady.
• Aromatherapy: Based on the miasma theory, the air was “purified” using aromatic herbs and flowers, leading to the iconic beak masks of plague doctors.
• Spiritual Interventions: In the face of inexplicable mortality, many sought divine respite through prayers and penances.

Societal and Economic Impact

Immediate Effects

The Black Death’s initial grip on Europe was characterized by sheer panic and desolation. Imagine bustling cities like London, Paris, and Florence, once teeming with life, suddenly echoing with the cries of the afflicted and the silence of deserted streets. The despondency was palpable: families, in sheer terror, often abandoned infected loved ones; villages vanished off the map, and death, ever-present, loomed large over the continent.

Economic Repercussions

• Labour Shortages: As the disease continued its relentless assault, up to a third of Europe’s population was wiped out. This demographic catastrophe had an immediate and profound impact on labour availability. As John Kelly elucidates in “The Great Mortality,” fields lay fallow, crops rotted, and essential services were disrupted due to the stark shortage of workers.
• Rise in Wages: With the severe dip in the available workforce, the basic principles of supply and demand came into play. Labour, now a premium, saw a sharp rise in its valuation. Workers, recognizing their elevated importance, began demanding — and receiving — higher wages and better working conditions. Serfs, traditionally bound to their lords’ lands under feudal obligations, began moving to cities or other regions, offering better pay, effectively breaking the shackles of the feudal system.
• Transfer of Wealth: Many feudal lords, who lost vast portions of their serf populations, found their economic clout dwindling. Conversely, those who survived the plague often found themselves beneficiaries of inheritances from deceased relatives, leading to a somewhat unexpected redistribution of wealth. The consolidation of wealth meant a rise in disposable income, paving the way for an increased demand for goods and services and, by extension, further eroding the feudal structure.

Prelude to the Renaissance & Geopolitical Landscape

• The collapse of the Feudal System: The massive economic shifts catalyzed by the Black Death heralded the decline of feudalism. As serfs moved and urbanized, new centers of commerce and culture began to flourish. These burgeoning city-states, especially in regions like Italy, started to challenge the traditional feudal lords’ power.
• Rise of New Political Powers: The newly minted wealth and shifts in population dynamics led to the emergence of new political entities. Merchant families, like the Medici in Florence, used their financial prowess to gain political influence, shaping the region’s geopolitics.
• Dawn of the Early Modern Age: With the decline of feudalism and the rise of city-states and monarchies, Europe began transitioning into the early modern age. Nations began to form centralized governments, professional armies, and more structured economic systems. The socioeconomic transformations catalyzed by the Black Death indirectly laid the foundation for the emergence of modern European nation-states.

Social Changes

Persecutions and superstitions ran rampant in the plague’s wake. Communities sought scapegoats, leading to the egregious blame and subsequent persecution of groups like the Jews. Additionally, movements like the flagellants gained momentum, with followers believing that the plague was divine punishment and that self-flagellation could atone for sins.

Cultural Reflections

The Black Death, in its devastation, didn’t just reshape the socioeconomic fabric of Europe; it left a profound impact on the cultural psyche. Art, literature, and philosophical musings began reflecting a newfound perspective on mortality, life, and the individual’s place in the universe. This shift was characterized by a turn towards introspection and, over time, a more human-centred worldview.

Two luminary figures who illuminated this transition were Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio. Petrarch, often called the “Father of Humanism,” was an Italian scholar, poet, and one of the earliest humanist thinkers.

The humanist movement gained momentum with the groundwork of thinkers like Petrarch and Boccaccio. The aftermath of the Black Death, which underscored the impermanence of life, led to an increased emphasis on personal achievement, individual experience, and a recentering of education and thought around human potential rather than purely divine concerns.

This didn’t mean a rejection of religion. Instead, humanists believed that by understanding human nature and achievements, one could get closer to understanding God. This blend of religious and secular thought would shape much of Renaissance art, philosophy, and science. The likes of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Erasmus, inspired by humanist principles, would push the boundaries of art, science, and literature.

Religious Impact and the Foundations for the Protestant Reformation

The Church’s Initial Response

As the plague ravaged Europe, the Church was expected to provide solace, answers, and a spiritual antidote to the seemingly apocalyptic catastrophe. Clergy of all ranks — from parish priests to bishops — were on the front lines, ministering to the sick, performing last rites, and burying the dead. This exposed them to infection, and many succumbed, leading to a shortage of experienced clergy.

Public Perception and Disillusionment

The Church’s inability to prevent or halt the plague and its standard explanation that the Black Death was divine punishment for sins led to increasing disillusionment among the masses. Suppose the Church was God’s earthly representation and remained powerless against the plague. Could it still be deemed as the ultimate spiritual authority? Such questions began to germinate doubts.

The rapid death toll among the clergy also led to hasty ordinations of less experienced and sometimes corrupt individuals. This decline in the moral and intellectual quality of the clergy further eroded public trust. The Church’s decisions, such as selling indulgences as a ticket to heaven or a means to reduce time in purgatory, were increasingly seen as corrupt and driven by greed rather than genuine spiritual guidance.

Shifts in Spiritual Beliefs

Many began to seek a direct relationship with God, bypassing the perceived corruption and inefficacy of the Church. Movements and groups that emphasized personal piety and direct communion with God, outside the purview of the traditional Church structure, started gaining traction. The flagellants, for instance, believed that by punishing themselves, they were atoning for the sins that had brought about the plague.

Laying the Groundwork for the Protestant Reformation

The seeds of doubt sown during the Black Death created an environment ripe for religious reform. When Martin Luther pinned his Ninety-five Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church in 1517, questioning the Church’s practices (especially indulgences), there was already a simmering undercurrent of skepticism. The Church’s weakened moral authority post-plague made it more vulnerable to criticisms and calls for reform.

The invention of the printing press around 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg further compounded the Church’s challenges. It allowed for rapid dissemination of ideas, including those that countered Church doctrines. Thus, when the Reformation began, it wasn’t just a spark in isolation; it was a flame catching onto the dry kindling left behind in the wake of the Black Death.

Conclusion

The Black Death emerges as more than a mere cataclysmic event in the relentless march of history. It became a crucible that reshaped Europe, both tangibly and intangibly. This 14th-century horror did not merely cause death; it birthed rebirth, challenging established systems and beliefs. As the buboes formed and the populace despaired, a new Europe began to stir in its womb. Everything became interconnected, from the economic scaffolding that reshaped labour dynamics to the introspective art that bore the soul of a continent grappling with its mortality to the religious shakeups that heralded cries for reform.

While we’ve delved deeply into the Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the Americas, understanding the heart of Europe during this pivotal time is paramount. With its widespread devastation, the Black Death inadvertently laid the foundation for the world we now navigate. The next phase of our journey, dear reader, delves into the colonial rivalries spurred by these transformations. We’ll explore not just the movements of monarchs and armies but the pulse of a people reshaped by disease, ready to redefine their destiny. So, fasten your seat belts for the next leap back in time as we trace the steps that led from plague-ravaged cities to the shores of the Caribbean. The stage is set, and the actors, from Spain to Portugal, are ready to enter.

References

• Kelly, John. The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time. Harper Perennial, 2006.
• FlashPoint History. “History of the Black Death – Full Documentary.” YouTube, Jun 9, 2020, https://youtu.be/HYNB4sAxemk.

About Post Author

David

davidnjtam@gmail.com

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